The courts had to establish by law whether, for example, a petitioner's race was to be measured by skin color, facial features, national origin, language, culture, ancestry, the specialization of scientist, [or] popular opinion. Most saliently for immigrants from the Middle East, the courts could also determine whiteness on the basis of religion. American whiteness, therefore, was very much a social construction, endorsed by law and subject to revision.

Builds on: "US law required whiteness for citizenship from 1790 to 1952."

Khaled A. Beydoun, American Islamophobia_ Unde…, loc. 183