In Rio de Janeiro in 1805, soldiers of African descent wore "medallion portraits of the emperor Dessalines." In Cuba a free black named José Antonio Aponte, who was accused of conspiring to revolt in 1812, had portraits of Henri Christophe, Toussaint Louverture, Jean-François, and Dessalines in his home. Rebels who conspired with Aponte described having been shown these images "in what probably amounted to lessons in the history of the Haitian Revolution."

Dubois, Laurent, Avengers of the New World_ …, loc. 443