There had been not only a “revolution” in their habits, but a dramatic transformation in their “ideas.” The French general Pamphile de Lacroix would write in a similar vein that the great failure of Bonaparte and his advisers, most of them former planters, had been failing to see that the blacks were not “as they had left them,” and underestimating the profound political consequences of “ten years of revolution” in Saint-Domingue.

Dubois, Laurent, Avengers of the New World_ …, loc. 384