In contrast with these American anxieties, Britons in India only became alarmed at the prospect of an Ottoman-oriented pan-Islamism as the nineteenth century concluded. Officials began to fear that Turkish agents were stirring discontent in India. Important intellectuals like Sir Muhammad Iqbal and Abul Kalam Azad promoted an Islamic identity that transcended national borders, a widespread sentiment among the ulama. Pro-British Muslims such as Sir Saiyid Ahmad Khan and Mirza Ghulam Ahmad felt compelled to write tracts defending loyalty to the British government as popular support grew for the Turkish sultan. However, no uprising ever pursued any Ottoman-oriented ends.

QUESTION: Why did pro-Ottoman sentiment never translate into an uprising? What specific factors constrained action despite widespread ideological support?

Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg, Common Heritage, Uncommon F…, loc. 71