Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg treat it as a largely unwarranted social anxiety about Islam and Muslims, although they focus on the element of fear of Islam rather than other stereotypes. Kambiz GhaneaBassiri considers it to be a prejudice against Islam that is particularly associated with violence in media representations, although he emphasizes the similarity of Islamophobia to prejudice against other minority “out-groups” like Catholics, Jews, and blacks. Edward Curtis highlights the element of racism in Islamophobia, which he links to state repression of political dissent. Juliane Hammer draws attention to the importance of gender in images of terrorists and the construction of Islamophobia, although she cautions that particular examples of Islamophobia must be analyzed in terms of the particular political and intellectual currents that drive them. Andrew Shryock focuses on Islamophobia as an ideology related to nationalism and the problems of minority identity; he contrasts Islamophobic identification of “the Muslim as enemy” with the equally simplistic concept of “the Muslim as friend,” as found in Islamophilia.

XREF: Connects to broader scholarly debates on prejudice and critical race theory; the noted theorists each locate Islamophobia in different structures (media, state, gender, nationalism).

Carl W. Ernst, Islamophobia in America_ Th…, loc. 23