These centuries continued to see the production of fantastic Muslim characters, including monsters. Several prominent philosophical, intellectual, and artistic movements affected the production of Muslim monsters, including the Enlightenment, Orientalism, and Romanticism, with its rich offshoot, the Gothic, resulting in an episteme of continued anti-Muslim rhetoric that was largely situated in fantasies that first emerged in the Middle Ages. The Enlightenment's focus on science, for all of its rationalism, included a rebirth of teratology, the study of monsters inspired by "monstrous births."

XREF: Connects to the broader theme of anti-Muslim rhetoric spanning from medieval fantasies through the Enlightenment, despite that era's rationalism.

Sophia Rose Arjana, Muslims in the Western Imag…, loc. 351