Our discussion of the surveillance, religious profiling, detentions, deportations, hate crimes, and impediments to the free exercise of religion touches on the most prominent instances of the discrimination, exclusion, and even violence experienced by Muslims. While this is not an exhaustive list, it is a reminder of some of the overwhelming challenges facing Muslims who seek to live as productive members of Western societies. It is also a reminder that racism and bigotry are not confined to individual attitudes and actions but are systemic and take institutionalized form. The perpetuation of Islamophobia by government agencies and non-Muslim citizens reveals the magnitude of the problem. But is the problem insurmountable, or are there effective ways to combat Islamophobia? That is the question that concerns us in the final chapter.

Green, Todd H, The Fear of Islam_ An Intro…, loc. 641