The crusade against Muslims in Belgium and France, and through much of Europe, is where the “clash of civilizations” imagery is deeply embedded and most familiar. It reaches far back into a historical memory that even ordinary citizens are familiar with, fear, and register by casting votes for populist parties and casting cold stares toward headscarved women.

XREF: Connects to Huntington's clash of civilizations thesis and contemporary far-right populism in Europe.

Khaled A. Beydoun, The New Crusades_ Islamopho…, loc. 835