In patent tying cases, for instance, when the courts spoke of this device as an attempt to expand patent monopoly, the courts—according to Director and Levi—misconstrued economic reasoning: “[We] believe that the [tying] practices . . . can be explained best as methods of charging different prices to different customers and not as extensions of monopoly to other areas” … Contrary to Levi's 1947 claim, they maintained that "Vertical integration . . . often appears explainable as a method price discrimination" (p.

Philip Mirowski & Dieter Plehwe (eds.), The Road from Mont Pèlerin, loc. 1143