In a society in which the background standards are those of the con artist, stances toward others will generally be defensive, and wariness might block most cooperative dealings, as in contexts of pervasive distrust and untrustworthiness. In a much more cooperative society, which is likely to be either a very close society or one with relatively good institutional structures to protect various dealings, the typically correct stance will be one of openness rather than wariness. Science has traditionally seemed to be such a society. Scientists generally seem to think that fraud is rare in science, but there are few data to establish that claim.

XREF: Connects to discussions of scientific norms of trust and replication crises in science.

Russell Hardin, Trust and Trustworthiness, loc. 854