It will be remembered that Tempels started out as a revolutionary of sorts. What he did in Bantu Philosophy was to challenge dominant ideas about the intellectual capabilities of Africans, and, consequently, the methods of colonial administration and Christian mission, based on these dominant ideas. At this stage, he appears to us as a man who broke out of the sort of colonialism that has been aptly characterized as paternalism.

What he did in Bantu Philosophy was to challenge dominant ideas about the intellectual capabilities of Africans, and, consequently, the methods of colonial administration and Christian mission, based on these dominant ideas. At this stage, he appears to us as a man who broke out of the sort of colonialism that has been aptly characterized as paternalism.

Even before the end of the Second World War, Tempels realized that the world order had changed. Before the war, world order was deemed simple. There were civilized people who lived in the Western world and primitive people who lived in the rest of the world, particularly in Dark Africa. Thus, according to mainstream thinking at that time, African thought was illogical and African belief was idolatry.

Before the war, world order was deemed simple. There were civilized people who lived in the Western world and primitive people who lived in the rest of the world, particularly in Dark Africa. Thus, according to mainstream thinking at that time, African thought was illogical and African belief was idolatry.

Tempels was born on February 18, 1906, in Berlaar, Belgium. After completing his primary and secondary education, he wanted to become a priest. He began his training at the seminary of the Franciscan Minor Friars in Tielt, Belgium, on September 17, 1924. After his ordination to the priesthood on August 15, 1930, he finished his theological studies, followed by an Eloquentia course (training in rhetoric and moral casuistic) and one year of teaching at the H. Hartcollege in Heusden. Afterwards, he was assigned to be a missionary in the then Belgian Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo), where he worked for ten years in a traditional way, based on the catechism and canon law.

In 1951, he was allowed to return to Congo. According to his own testi- mony, he was advised to “not write more” but “simply do apostolate [work]” (Tempels 1964). His work then became the foundation of a new religious movement, the Jamaa, inspired by the Catholic Action. Although not officially condemned by the hierarchy of the Catholic Church, they were worried that the movement deviated from Catholic teachings and practices and could potentially become a breakaway church.

Until 1880, priestly training had been done in a rather informal and practical way in cloisters, focused on celebrating liturgy and sacraments. In 1880, however, Pope Leo XIII decided to upgrade seminary training by including neo-Thomism as a solid philosophical foundation. Neo-Thomistic training was historical and apologetic.

Apart from neo-Thomism, however, the Franciscans valued their own tradi- tion of Saint Bonaventura and Duns Scotus. The “Franciscan School” stressed a radical difference between “the God of philosophers” and “the God of Chris- tianity”. In the neo-scholastic tradition, belief was systematized and rational. It became a doctrine against the ideologies of the time: modernism, liberalism and socialism. In the Franciscan tradition, belief remained an act and way of life. Belief was more spiritual, affective and active (Van Dam 2006: 174).

On July 31, 1924, the inter-province Conference of Lecturers published a “Plan for Higher Studies in the Provinces” (Van Dam 2006: 90). Because of advances in the behavioral and natural sciences between the First and Second World Wars, the Franciscans started to renew their training. Non-theological subjects, such as economy and sociology, were included in the curriculum. This inter-province college was comprised of lecturers from Flanders, Wallonia, The Netherlands and Germany, and it aimed at unification of priestly formation. Most striking was the separation of philosophy and theology. Philosophy became an independent discipline to be taught in a philosophicum.

Most striking was the separation of philosophy and theology. Philosophy became an independent discipline to be taught in a philosophicum.

His book was not written for philosophers, theologians and anthropologists, but for “missionaries, magistrates, [and] administrators” (Tempels 1946: 20). And although he wanted to go beyond the European civilizing mission in Africa, he could not escape from the prejudices embedded in European thinking at that time, which was highly indebted to philosophers such as Hegel and Levy-Bruhl. However, the fact that scholars still write about him, as the authors of this book do, shows that he did have a durable impact on scholarship, whether or not they agree with him.

Apart from his seminary training, Tempels had no further studies. His book was not written for philosophers, theologians and anthropologists, but for “missionaries, magistrates, [and] administrators” (Tempels 1946: 20). And although he wanted to go beyond the European civilizing mission in Africa, he could not escape from the prejudices embedded in European thinking at that time, which was highly indebted to philosophers such as Hegel and Levy-Bruhl.