Such a long view allows us to see that the image of Muslims and Islam in Europe has gone through a series of shifts and changes that corresponded to changes in the political and social realms. Thus, contrary to the idea that the East-West relationship has always been characterized by conflict or a “clash of civilizations,” I show that anti-Muslim prejudice was consciously constructed and deployed by the ruling elite at particular moments. While ordinary people in Europe did accept these ideas, for instance during the Crusades, they have also resisted them.

XREF: Challenges the 'clash of civilizations' thesis associated with Huntington, contrasting with a constructed/engineered prejudice model.

Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politi…, loc. 25