Broadly speaking, a confluence of three factors helped pave the way for the rise of Islamism: the failure of secular nationalism, the weakness of the left, and the onslaught of economic crises. In what follows, I examine each of these in greater detail. While these are the overarching conditions that enable Islamists to vie for hegemony, there are specific local and regional factors that play a role. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to speak to these local conditions.

Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politi…, loc. 323